By Adhyayan Academy Faculy
Two years after World War II, the United Kingdom formally dissolved British India, dividing it into two new nations: the Union of India and Pakistan. Initially by Indian Independence Act 1947, both got independence in August 1947, but remained under the dominion of Britain. In 1950 (26th January 1950), India emerged as a Sovereign secular republic with a Hindu-majority population and a large Muslim minority. Shortly afterwards, in 1956 (23 March 1956, Pakistan emerged as Sovereign Islamic republic with a Muslim-majority population and a relatively less Hindu minority.
This partition resulted in the displacement of up to 15 million people, with the death toll estimated to have reached between several hundred thousand and one million people as Hindus and Muslims migrated in opposite directions across the Radcliffe Line to reach India and Pakistan, respectively.
The India-Pakistan conflict of 1947:
The India-Pakistan conflict of 1947, often called the First Indo-Pak War or First Kashmir War, erupted shortly after the partition of British India into two independent nations, India and Pakistan, in August 1947. The conflict centred on the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, leading to the first major military confrontation between the two newly formed countries.
Background of Kashmir Conflict:
When British rule ended in 1947, the princely states — like Jammu and Kashmir — were given three options (As per the Mountbatten Plan or 3rd June Plan):
Join India,
Join Pakistan, or
Remain independent.
Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, did not want to join either India or Pakistan immediately. He preferred to stay independent.
To maintain peace and manage daily affairs (like trade, communication, and travel) while staying independent, he signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan. This agreement meant that things would continue as they were between Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan.
Even though Maharaja Hari Singh wanted to stay independent, trouble soon started.
In October 1947, tribal militias (Pashtun and Hazara) from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province, supported by elements of the Pakistani military, invaded Kashmir with the aim of annexing it to Pakistan. They moved quickly, capturing areas and causing panic. The Maharaja’s forces were not strong enough to stop them.
Fearing that he would lose control over his kingdom, Maharaja Hari Singh asked India for help.
But India made it clear: before sending troops, Jammu and Kashmir would need to officially become a part of India. This was important because India could only send its army to defend its own territory — not an independent state.
So, on 26 October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession, officially agreeing to join India. Right after this on 27th October 1947, Indian troops were airlifted to Kashmir, marking the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. They fought back the invaders and pushed them away from important areas like Srinagar.
Escalation and Ceasefire:
By May 1948, regular Pakistani Army units joined the conflict, intensifying the fighting.
The frontlines gradually solidified into what later became known as the Line of Control (LoC).
The United Nations intervened, and UN Security Council Resolution 47 called for a ceasefire and a plebiscite to determine Kashmir’s future, though the plebiscite was never held.
Karachi Agreement (Cease-Fire Line in Jammu & Kashmir)
Signed on: 27 July 1949
Parties: Military representatives of India and Pakistan, under the supervision of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP)
Purpose: To formally establish and demarcate a cease-fire line (CFL) in the state of Jammu and Kashmir following the end of hostilities from the 1947–48 war.
Key Provisions:
The agreement defined an 830 km cease-fire line, which separated the territories controlled by India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir.
The line was mapped and verified by both sides, with provisions for UN observers to monitor compliance.
Both sides agreed to maintain their respective positions behind the line and not to strengthen their defenses or move troops closer to the line, except as mutually agreed.
The agreement was strictly military and technical, not addressing political issues or the final status of Kashmir.
Significance: The cease-fire line established by this agreement became the basis for what is now known as the Line of Control (LoC), monitored by the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP)
A formal ceasefire came into effect on 1 January 1949, leaving India in control of about two-thirds of the territory (including the Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh), while Pakistan held roughly one-third (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan)
Liaquat Nehru Pact (1950) for the protection of minorities and rehabilitation of refugees.
- Both governments agreed to ensure complete protection and security for minorities within their territories.
- It was decided that minorities would have the right to migrate freely, return to their home countries, reclaim their property, and live without fear.
- Measures were outlined for the rehabilitation of refugees, ensuring that they could return to their homes if they wished, or be settled properly if they chose to stay in their new countries.
- Both countries committed to protecting the religious, cultural, and social rights of minorities, ensuring non-discrimination in access to jobs, educational opportunities, and other civil rights.
- It was agreed to establish minority commissions in both countries to hear and address complaints from minorities and to ensure the implementation of the pact’s provisions.
In the early years as an independent state while India chooses to remain non-aligned, Pakistan US led military alliances like the SEATO (1954) and Baghdad Pact or CENTO (1955).
Indus Water Treaty (IWT):
The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 is a landmark water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan.
Mediated by: World Bank
Signed on September 19, 1960, in Karachi by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
Key Provisions
River Allocation:
Western Rivers: Pakistan was allocated the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab, which constitute about 80% of the Indus system’s water volume.
Eastern Rivers: India was given control over the Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas, with unrestricted use for irrigation, hydropower, and other purposes.
Limited Use by India: India was allowed limited use of the western rivers for domestic purposes, non-consumptive uses (e.g., hydropower), and restricted irrigation (e.g., 700,000 acres in Jammu and Kashmir).
Permanent Indus Commission: A bilateral body was established to monitor implementation, share data, and resolve disputes. It mandates regular meetings and inspections.
Dispute Resolution: The treaty outlines a tiered mechanism: issues are first addressed by the Indus Commission, then a neutral expert, and, if unresolved, an international Court of Arbitration.
Disputes: Pakistan has raised concerns over India’s hydropower projects on western rivers (e.g., Baglihar, Kishanganga dams), alleging violations of design or flow restrictions. These have been addressed via neutral experts or arbitration (e.g., Baglihar in 2007, Kishanganga in 2013)
Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty
On 23 April 2025, following a targeted terrorist attack in Baisaran Valley of Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, the Government of India in a meeting of the Cabinet Committee on Security declared the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty with Pakistan citing national security concerns.
India-Pakistan war in 1965:
After the first war in 1947–48, tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir did not go away. Both countries still claimed the whole region.
In 1965, Pakistan launched a new plan called “Operation Gibraltar”. The idea was to secretly send Pakistani soldiers disguised as locals into Indian-administered Kashmir to create unrest and encourage people to rebel against Indian rule.
But the plan didn’t work. Local people didn’t support the infiltrators, and Indian forces quickly responded. This led to a full military conflict between the two countries.
Operation Grand Slam: On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched a major offensive targeting Akhnoor in Jammu, aiming to cut off Indian supply lines. The attack initially made gains, but India countered by opening new fronts in Punjab and calling in its air force, forcing Pakistan to divert its troops and ultimately halting the offensive.
Ceasefire and Aftermath:
The United Nations intervened, and on 22 September 1965, both countries agreed to a ceasefire following UN Security Council Resolution 211.
By the end of the war, India had occupied 740 square miles of Pakistani territory, while Pakistan had made marginal gains of 210 square miles of Indian territory.
Both nations claimed victory, but the war ended in a military and political stalemate, with neither side achieving its primary objectives.
Tashkent Declaration:
To formalize peace, the Tashkent Declaration was signed on 10 January 1966 in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), mediated by Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin.
Key provisions included:
- Withdrawal of armed forces to pre-war positions as of 5 August 1965.
- Restoration of diplomatic and economic relations.
- Commitment to non-interference and peaceful resolution of disputes.
- Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri of India and President Ayub Khan of Pakistan signed the agreement, with Shastri passing away the next day in Tashkent.
India-Pakistan War of 1971: The Liberation of Bangladesh:
The 1971 India-Pakistan War, also known as the Third Indo-Pakistani War, was a pivotal conflict that resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. Unlike previous wars centered on Kashmir, this conflict stemmed from political and humanitarian crises in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
Causes and Background
Political Marginalization: East Pakistan, despite its larger population, faced systemic neglect and discrimination from West Pakistan’s ruling elite. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority in the 1970 elections but was denied power by West Pakistan’s military junta under General Yahya Khan.
Operation Searchlight: On 26 March 1971, Pakistan launched a brutal military crackdown in East Pakistan to suppress Bengali demands for autonomy. The operation included mass killings, rape, and arson, leading to genocide and a refugee exodus of 10 million Bengalis to India.
Humanitarian Crisis: India faced immense economic strain and social disruption due to the refugee influx, prompting Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to intervene.
Key Events
Mukti Bahini Formation: Bengali military defectors, students, and civilians formed the Mukti Bahini (Liberation Army), which waged guerrilla warfare against Pakistani forces. India provided training, arms, and logistical support.
Indian Intervention: By late 1971, India openly supported Bangladesh’s independence. The Indian Army’s Eastern Command began preparing for operations as early as April 1971.
War Declaration: On 3 December 1971, Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on Indian airbases (Operation Chengiz Khan), triggering full-scale war. India retaliated with coordinated air, land, and naval attacks.
Military Operations
Eastern Front: Indian forces, alongside Mukti Bahini, executed a three-pronged advance into East Pakistan from West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. Key battles included the capture of Dhaka, aided by superior strategy and local support.
Western Front: Pakistan attacked India’s western borders but failed to gain significant ground. India captured 15,010 sq km of Pakistani territory but later returned it post-war.
Naval Blockade: The Indian Navy enforced a blockade, crippling Pakistani supply lines and sinking vessels, including the submarine PNS Ghazi
Surrender and Aftermath
Instrument of Surrender: On 16 December 1971, Pakistan’s Lt. Gen. A.A.K. Niazi surrendered to India’s Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora in Dhaka. 93,000 Pakistani troops were taken prisoner-the largest surrender since World War II.
Birth of Bangladesh: The war established Bangladesh as an independent nation, with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman as its first leader.
Simla Agreement (1972):
- Signed between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from Pakistan
- The Shimla Agreement designated the ceasefire line of December 17, 1971, as being the new “Line-of-Control (LoC)” between the two countries, which neither side is to seek to alter unilaterally, and which “shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognised position of either side”.
- It also contains a, mutual commitment to the peaceful resolution of all issues through direct bilateral approaches
Operation Meghdoot in 1984 brought the Siachen Glacier under India’s control.
In 1998 under Operation Shakti, India conducted a series of five nuclear tests on May 11 and 13. These tests marked India’s declaration as a nuclear weapons state, demonstrating its capability to develop nuclear arms. Pakistan responds by detonating six nuclear devices of its own in the Chaghai Hills. The tests result in international sanctions being placed on both countries. In the same year, both countries carry out tests of long-range missiles.
In 1999 – Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee undertook a bus journey to Lahore and met with Nawaz Sharif, his Pakistani counterpart. Both countries reaffirmed their commitment to the Simla Agreement, and agree to undertake a number of ‘Confidence Building Measures’ (CBMs). The two signed the Lahore Declaration:
Signed on February 21, 1999, during Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s visit to Lahore, Pakistan in the backdrop of the two countries’ nuclear tests in 1998, which had heightened regional tensions.
It included commitment to:
- peace, security, and mutual respect for sovereignty.
- Agreement on measures to reduce the risk of accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons,
- Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs): Steps to enhance mutual trust and confidence in various fields, including economic cooperation and people-to-people contacts.
Kargil War: Breach of the Declaration
Operation Badr: By May 1999, Pakistani forces (including regular troops) infiltrated Indian-administered Kargil, occupying strategic posts vacated during winter.
Operation Vijay: In response India Launched operation Vijaya recapturing territories through ground assaults and air strikes.
Outcome: Pakistan withdrew by July 26 after international pressure, with India retaining control of previously held positions
Post Kargil War:
In October 1999, General Pervez Musharraf, the Pakistani chief of army staff, led a military coup, deposing Nawaz Sharif, the then prime minister, and installing himself as the head of the government.
Hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight-IC 814 in Indian airspace by members of Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, a Pakistan-based extremist group, highlighted Pakistan’s role in the supporting terrorism against India.
In 2001 – While tensions along the Line of Control remained high, 38 people were killed in an attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar. In July, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf meet for a two-day summit at Agra. That summit collapsed after two days, with both sides unable to reach agreement on the issue of Kashmir. On December 13, an armed attack on the Indian parliament in New Delhi left 14 people dead. India blamed Pakistan backed Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Muhammad for the attacks. The attacks lead to a mobilization of India’s (referred to as Operation Parakram) and Pakistan’s militaries along the LoC. This situation was also referred to as the Twin Peaks Crisis in the western writings. The crisis ended in October 2002, after behind the scenes international efforts (involving mainly the US).
Mumbai Attacks 2008:
On 26 November 2008, armed Pakistani gunmen open fire on civilians at several sites in Mumbai, India. The attacks prompt an almost three-day siege of the Taj Hotel, where gunmen remain holed up until all but one of them were killed in an Indian security forces operation. More than 160 people are killed in the attacks. Ajmal Kasab, the only attacker captured alive, said that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba. In the wake of the attacks, India breaks off talks with Pakistan.
Pathankot, Uri, Pulwama and Surgical Strike:
In January 2016 Six gunmen attack an Indian air force base in Pathankot, killing seven soldiers in a battle that lasted nearly four days.
On September 2016 Suspected terrorists attack an Indian army base in Kashmir’s Uri and kill 18 soldiers. Four attackers are also killed. 11 days later, Indian Army announced that it has carried out “surgical strikes” to destroy terror launch pads across the Line of Control in Pakistan.
On14 February 2019, a terror attack was carried out in Pulwama in Jammu and Kashmir by a suicide bomber from Jai sh-e- Mohammad(JeM) resulting in the death of 40 CRPF personnel.
As a response:
- India revoked Pakistan’s most favoured nation status
- The customs duty on all Pakistani goods imported to India were raised to 200%
- The government of India urged the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) to put Pakistan on the blacklist.
- On 26 February, twelve Mirage 2000 jets of the Indian Air Force crossed the Line of Control and dropped bombs into Balakot, Pakistan.
Post Pulwama Indo Pak Relation:
Kashmir: Political and Social Developments
Revocation of Article 370: In August 2019, India revoked Jammu and Kashmir’s special constitutional status, further straining relations. The move was condemned by Pakistan, which viewed it as a grave injustice and a violation of international agreements.
Lockdown and Crackdown: The region experienced prolonged lockdowns, communication blackouts, and mass detentions. India also redrew the electoral map and cracked down on independent media.
Military and Security Dynamics
Ceasefire Violations: Frequent exchanges of fire across the Line of Control (LOC) became the norm, with daily incidents reported in the years following Pulwama.
Indian Policy Shift: India adopted a more assertive posture, signalling willingness to conduct cross-border strikes and increase unpredictability in its responses to terrorism.
Pakistan’s Response: Pakistan maintained its policy of supporting the Kashmiri right to self-determination, rejected Indian accusations of state-sponsored terrorism, and threatened strong retaliation against any Indian military action.
Current Status (as of 2025)
Continued Tensions: Relations remain at their lowest point since 2019, with no signs of normalization. Recent attacks, such as the 2025 Pahalgam incident, have further escalated tensions, with both sides taking additional diplomatic and military measures.
The 2025 Pahalgam attack was a terrorist attack on tourists by five armed terrorists near Pahalgam in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in which 26 civilians were killed on 22 April 2025. The militants mainly targeted Hindu tourists, though a Christian tourist and a local Muslim were also killed. This incident is considered the deadliest attack on civilians in India since the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
The Resistance Front (TRF), an affiliate of Lashkar-e-Taiba, claimed responsibility for the incident. In its statement, TRF opposed the issuance of 85,000 domicile certificates to non-locals, viewing it as a step toward demographic alteration in the region. However, security agencies are yet to verify the authenticity of this claim.
The attack drew condemnations and statements of condolences from several countries including Iran, Israel, Italy, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, and India’s neighbours including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The United Nations, the UN Security Council, and the European Union also issued similar statements
The Pahalgam Terror Attack had serious implications of India-Pakistan relations including:
Security Setback:
The incident undermines the prevailing narrative of peace and stability post-Article 370 and exposes critical gaps in current counterterrorism frameworks.
Economic Blow to Tourism:
Pahalgam, a key tourist destination, may experience a significant drop in footfall during the peak summer season. This will adversely impact the local economy, particularly businesses and services dependent on tourism.
Diplomatic Ramifications:
The attack coincided with the visit of international dignitaries, casting a shadow over India’s internal security image and potentially aiding adversarial narratives, especially from Pakistan.
Communal Polarisation Risk:
The targeted nature of the killings, reportedly based on religious identity, suggests an intent to inflame communal tensions. Such acts threaten to disrupt societal harmony and align with the broader terrorist agenda of destabilisation through fear and division.
